标签：英语论文范文,毕业论文范文,毕业论文格式,
从合作原则看英语委婉语的使用,http://www.dxs89.com
(i) do not say what you believe to be false.
(ii) do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence"[18]
4.2 The maxim of Quantity:
"(i) Make your contribution as informative as is required forthe current purposes of the exchange(ii) Do not make your contribution more informative than isrequired"[19]
4.3 The maxim of Relation:
"Make your contribution relevant."[20]
4.4 The maxim of Manner:
"Be perspicuous and specifically:
(i) avoid obscurity of expression.
(ii) avoid ambiguity.
(iii) be brief(iv) be orderly."[21]
From what mentioned above, we may know that theCooperative Principle enables one participant in aconversation to communicate on the assumption that the otherparticipant is being cooperative. These four maxims form anecessary part of the description of linguistic meaning inthat they explain how it is that the speakers often “mean morethan they say” in their communications.
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"We may decide to withhold whatever information wepossess:’ No comment!’ We may inadvertently infringe a maximor we can secretly violate a maxim—e.g. A could maliciouslyand falsely tell B that Janet had walked in the oppositedirection from the post office. Or – more importantly – we canmake a blatant show of breaking one of the maxims (Grice termsthis flouting a maxim), in order to lead the addressee to lookfor a covert, implied meaning."[22] . For examples,(3) "At the time of recording, all the members of the castwere members of The BBC Players. ( Implicature: One or more ofthem are no longer members of The BBC Players.)"[23]
Generally speaking, "in Grice’s analysis, the speaker’sflouting of a maxim combined with the hearer’s assumption thatthe speaker has nor really abandoned the co-operativeprinciple leads to an implicature"[24]. One thing thatdeserves our attention is that the four maxims, expressed inthe imperative mood have sometimes been misunderstood asinstructions for a speaker to behave in conversation.
5.Possible violating the Cooperative Principle in the use ofeuphemismsIn the light of the foregoing literature review and thetheoretical bases, we know that euphemisms or euphemisticexpressions are important and people often use them incommunication. In reality, it can be found that thesediplomats and statesmen etc. also use euphemisms oreuphemistic expressions in the question-answer patterns. Thesestatesmen make sharp things or unpleasant things soundpleasant etc. otherwise the use of euphemisms may even causemisunderstandings. So the next we will talk aboutcommunication with the theories of Cooperative Principle. Forexample, to be specific, diplomatic euphemisms of pressconferences are mainly chosen as the substitution of anagreeable or inoffensive word or expression for one that isharsh, indelicate or unpleasant to the other side. They arechosen from both the lexical approach and the rhetoricalapproach.
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In communication like the question-answer patterns inpress conferences, generally people or participants arerequired to observe the CP in order to make their conversationmoves forward smoothly and successfully. But in reality, inorder to meet a certain communicative need, especially inpress conferences concerning diplomacy, actually people seldomspeaks by always faithfully observing these four maxims of theCP. Therefore Grice himself also suggests 5 ways participantscan deal with these maxims. First, speakers canstraightforwardly follow the maxims, that is, they can speakthe truth while giving just enough relevant information in aclear, unambiguous, succinct and orderly manner. Many peopledo just that most of time. Second, someone may violate amaxim, as you would do if you told a deliberate lie. A thirdthing that can happen is that a speaker can ‘opt out’ of amaxim, this seems to be an uncommon occurrence. The fourthpossibility is the maxim clash; cases in which you would haveto violate one maxim in order to fulfill another. And perhapsthis is the most case of violation of the maxims in pressconferences. The fifth and most intriguing way to deal withthe maxims of conversation is to flout one of them. When amaxim is flouted, a speaker doesn't observe the maxim, butcannot be accused of violating it either, because thetransgression is so flagrant that it is totally obvious thatthe speaker knows he or she is not observing it and realizeseveryone else in the conversation knows it too.
The existence of the maxims of the CP makes theconversational implicature possible especially on theconditions like in press conferences etc.. Conversationalimplicature allows a speaker of any side in press conferencesto convey meaning beyond what is literally expressed. Speakersin press conferences can often use euphemisms or euphemisticexpressions to produce conversational implicature or moremeaning that the hearers can also figure out its realintentions rather than the literal meaning by violating somecertain maxims.
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5.1. Violation of Quality Maxim"Violation of Quality Maxim means by saying things thatare not true or the fact and making irresponsible andinsincere remarks by the speakers. It can produce somespecifical content: humor, or disguise the intention such asMinistry of Defence for Ministry of War, life insurence forinsurance when you are dead, freedom fighters forterrorists."[25] Frankly speaking, euphemisms have a tendencyto violate Quality Maxim in order to express unpleasant thingsor ideas etc. in an indirect, roundabout and pleasant way.
Therefore if hearers want to know the real intentions , theyshould infer the conversational implicature from theillocutionary meaning based on the special context. Moreoverhyperbole and understatement also don't obey the QualityMaxim, for all these contribution are true . Let us look atsome examples as follows:
(4) Q: Britain and France both put troops on standby alert …for possible movement into Kosovo. While … has the U.S. putany units on stand-by for a possible movement to Kosovo?
A: In view of the fact that … our forces remain at theircurrent state of readiness. There … increase that state ofalertness at this point. Obviously… on short stand-by… airoperations, would… .
In the above Q-A patterns of the transcripts, we can seediplomatic euphemisms like “possible movement”, “at theircurrent state of readiness” and “air operation” etc. are usedin press conferences that violate the Quality Maxim. From thespecific context we know that here “possible movement” mainlymeans “possible military attack”, “at their current state ofreadiness” refers to “at their current state of fighting ” and“air operation” refers to “air war” or “air fight” etc.. Stillwe can find more examples violating Quality Maxim of the CP inpress conferences like “Ministry of Defense” for “Ministry ofWar”, “entering into Kosovo” or “go into Kosovo” for “invadeKosovo” or “invasion” and “information” for “militaryintelligence” and also “active defense” for “attack” etc.. Bysaying that, the authority can distort the facts to someextent and also reduce its bad impressions on the public.
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Hence the authority can present a false picture to the publicand to beautify or disguise whatever they have done.
5.2 Violation of Quantity Maxim"Violation of Quantity Maxim is by providingnon-informative information or by either providing less ormore information than actually needed. Strictly speaking,acronym and abbreviation, two main ways of the formation ofeuphemism, are the two main ways of violating the QuantityMaxim. For example, execute is for execute death penalty, Ineed to go is for I need to go to the lavatory, commfu forcomplete monumental military fuck up , S.O.S forson-of-a-bitch."[26] Some euphemisms or euphemisticexpressions are created by contributing less information toviolate the Quantity Maxim in order to make unpleasant, rudeor offensive words sound more pleasant, polite and elegant.
，从合作原则看英语委婉语的使用